CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Public communication achieved prominence and became a course to be studied as result of great speeches by great leaders of antiquity. These leaders were entrusted the task of influencing the course of political, economic, social, cultural and spiritual destinies of their people through the power of their rhetoric. People all over the world tended to use these speeches as platform to pattern their behaviors and attitudes towards one another.

           A good leader is one who combines political skills with moral skills. Through his speech it should be evident that he is the pillar for change. The Prophet Mohammad is one of those leaders who embodied these qualities in both his speeches and actions. He stood like a change agent for all humankind because he blended spirituality with politics and governed from his heart, soul and head.  The Prophet’s influence is still felt strongly.  Hart (1978) listed Muhammad as the most influential individual in the history of humankind because he “was the only man in history who was supremely successful on both the religious and secular levels” (p. 3) and “In fact, as the driving force behind the Arab conquests, he may well rank as the most influential political leader of all time” (p. 9).  The importance of the Prophet’s communication, as he is deemed the most influential person in history, makes this research especially valuable as it further explains the importance of reading closely his words and communication and interpreting them for others to understand and learn from.

He was born in Arabia in the year 570 C.E. (common era), and fulfilled his mission of preaching the religion of Islam (submission to One God) from the age of forty until he departed from this world at the age of sixty-three. During this short period of 23 years of his prophethood, he changed the complete Arabian peninsula from paganism and idolatry to the worship of one God, from tribal quarrels and wars to national solidarity and cohesion, from drunkenness and wickedness to sobriety and piety, from lawlessness and anarchy to disciplined living, from utter bankruptcy to the highest standards of moral excellence (Shaw, 1946).

Prophet Muhammad’s patterns of communication with his family, friends, followers and enemies enabled him to successfully deliver his message of Islam and increase the number of his followers.  Over twenty-three years of delivering the message from Allah, Prophet Muhammad developed a communication pattern to invite people to learn about Islam. This study is a textual analysis of values as reflected in the public communication of Prophet Muhammad.

Prophet Muhammad was the political leader and the chief of the first Muslim State in Arabia with Medina as the capital. The most important quality of a military leader coincides with those of a political leader, especially when the leader assumes the highest position in the state, or is establishing a state. Military leadership requires firmness and resoluteness and political leadership requires clemency, forbearance and wisdom.  Possessing these qualities for both kinds of leadership is rare in the same individual.  Historically, Prophet Muhammad differs from other political leaders in that he neither inherited a throne nor seized power. Rather, he established a state from nothing.  A state rests on three pillars: people, land and political authority, which manages the affairs of people. The state can be defined as “A group of people who are living permanently on a specific geographical territory and who are subjected to a specific political administration” (Abd Allah, 1996, p. 19).

Prophet Muhammad spent 13 years in Mecca advocating peace for war, calm for violence, forgiveness for revenge and the call of justice for tyranny. (Abd Allah, 1996)  During this period, he was able to build a community that consisted of people ready to sacrifice their lives in the path of God and the new religion. (Abd Allah, 1996)  Prophet Muhammad became convinced that Qoraish would not allow him to make Mecca a “safe and strong base” from which he could start to establish his state.  He prepared the believers, which is the first pillar of the state. But he needed the second pillar, land. That was why he turned to another city that would be suitable to form his base. He first chose Taef because of its strategic location near Mecca and its warrior inhabitants.  Then, he went to invite its leaders to Islam but they rejected him and verbally and physically abused him. They even incited their children to harm him. Following this, he returned to Mecca disappointed but still hopeful for God’s help and support. (Shah, 1996)

Prophet Muhammad did not give up and continued calling on other tribes to Islam, those that made pilgrimages to Mecca according to ancient Arab traditions. (Salahi, 1995, p. 25)   He met a group of 12 men from the city of Yathreb (Madina). In the next year, seventy-three Madinans came and met the Prophet. He felt that he could look forward to having his safe and solid base in Madina. (Abd Allah, 1996) When God gave His permission to the Prophet to immigrate to Madina, he realized that he had ensured the second element of his state: the land. ( Abd Allah, 1996)

Prophet Muhammad still had to establish some sort of organization and political administration in order to have all the necessary elements of the state. The first thing he did after arriving in Madina was to declare that his followers from Mecca and Madina were brethren. The Prophet formulated a treaty, Al Sahifa, to govern the relationships between the various elements of the new society for Muslims and non- Muslims. The treaty embodied the provisional constitution of the first Muslim State .

Immediately after his settlement in Madina, Prophet Muhammad established brotherhood between Muslims, particularly between the Emigrants and the Helpers. They loved each other and were very close to each other. For example:

Sa‘d ibn Rabi’ took his emigrant ‘brother’ ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Awf to his house and said: “Brother, you have left everything you have in Mecca . So, this house, with everything in it, belongs to both of us. Besides, you do not have a wife here, while I have two. Whichever of them you like, I’ll divorce her, so that you may marry her.” Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Awf answered him in tears: “Brother, may God bless you with your wife! Please show me to the city bazaar so that I may do some business. (Bukhari, 2048)

The brotherhood between the Emigrants and the Helpers was very deep, so sincere, and so strong that the Helpers shared everything they had with their emigrant brothers. It is an observable fact that the main mission Prophet Muhammad bore for Allah was of peace in the world. The fundamental purpose was for people to make peace with their Creator, peace with the universe and peace with other people. The Qur'an, in very plain words, announces the arrival of the Prophet of peace in these words: “ O People of the book! Our Messenger has come to you, Light has come to you from Allah and a book which shows the truth, and Allah leads the way of peace to those who seek His pleasure” (Qur’an 5:17-18). These verses stress that the Prophet was sent to guide the people to the way of peace. Peace is the most common word on the tongue of an observing Muslim's tongue. Whenever two people meet, they exchange the greetings taught by the Prophet: "Peace be upon you," a wish of peace.

Besides stressing the importance of peace, Prophet Muhammad emphasized the importance of education, decreeing education as a must for all people, male or female.  Compulsory education constitutes the law of the land, but is not an innovation of modernists.  Muhammad had declared it compulsory almost immediately after the establishment of the city state of Madina.  It was in the very second year of the establishment of the Madinistic Regime that his law regarding compulsory education began to be implemented with all the vigor and force necessary for an emerging state. And like a practical realist, he also warned his people to save themselves from the point that not all knowledge is practical and useful (Qahtani, 2000).   As long as Muslims kept up this breadth of vision, they were considered by the Prophet to be the torchbearers of learning and the standard to judge the various shades of cultures and civilizations in the world.

Prophet Muhammad acknowledged the equality and brotherhood of man. He was not content with just preaching it; he practiced it. One of his closest companions was a former negro slave, Bilaal; one of his trusted lieutenants was an Iranian called Salmaan; a third, Suhayb of Rome. These followers came from different places, spoke different languages, and were of different heritage. However, in their teacher's company, they were all the same, equal to each other without distinction (Great Prophet, n.d.).

 Although Prophet Muhammad delivered numerous speeches concerning many extraordinary values and principles that were misunderstood in the West, the religion of Islam is often described as a source of violence, extremism and terrorism (Ahmad &Yousef, 1998).  This research seeks to examine the values that are manifested in Prophet Muhammad’s addresses during his twenty-three years of Prophet hood and to evaluate the Prophet’s leadership traits as evident in his public addresses.

Statement of the Problem

Every detail of Prophet Muhammad’s private life and public utterances have been accurately documented and faithfully preserved to our day. The authenticity of the record so preserved is supported not only by the faithful followers but also even by his critics.  The public communication of Prophet Muhammad is found in the Qur’an, and in the many Adith, or encyclopedias of the word of the Prophet.  Many researchers and historians spend their careers ensuring the people have access to the word and will of Allah and the Prophet’s delivery of those sayings.

Muhammad was a religious teacher, a social reformer, a moral guide, an administrative colossus, a faithful friend, a wonderful companion, a devoted husband, and a loving father–all in one. (Lamartine, 1854)  He further explains Muhammad’s appeal thus:

Philosopher, orator, apostle, legislator, warrior, conqueror of ideas, restorer of rational dogmas, of a cult without images, the founder of twenty terrestrial empires and of one spiritual empire, that is Muhammad. As regards all the standards by which Human Greatness may be measured, we may well ask, is there any man greater than he? (pp. 276-277 )

Volumes of books and articles have been written about Prophet Muhammad’s life but the values in his public communication have not been extensively analyzed and exposed especially to the western world. Additionally, Prophet Muhammad’s teachings and values are usually misunderstood in the West.( Ahmad & Yousef, 1998)  Some westerners describe the religion of Islam as a source of violence, extremism and terrorism.(Ahmad & Yousef, 1998)  This research seeks to examine the values that are manifest in Prophet Muhammad’s public addresses during his twenty-three years of Prophet-hood.  The importance of examining Prophet Muhammad’s public communication cannot be understated.  Especially in these times, his leadership abilities, influenced by the extraordinary values he demonstrated and espoused, provide a glowing example of ethical interactions in secular and spiritual transactions.  A closer adherence to the values the Prophet highlighted will benefit humankind, centuries after their utterance.

Research Questions

            The purpose of this research is to read and review closely Prophet Muhammad’s public communication while answering the following two questions: 1)  What are the primary values in the public communication of Prophet Muhammad? 2) What are the other extraordinary values in the public communication of Prophet Muhammad?       

Significance of the Study

There are literally thousands of instances and utterances where the Prophet shared his public communication.  Scholars and researchers have painstakingly combined them into a compendium of public communication.  Additionally, the Qur’an contains his divinely guided writings to the people.  However, no studies have shown how the values espoused by the Prophet can influence current practices or how important the extraordinary values themselves were to the Prophet in preaching his words.

Although volumes of books have been written about the life of Prophet Muhammad and his teachings, to date, however, there is no extensive study about the values in the public communication of the Prophet.  Prophet Muhammad’s stated values in his public communication and his leadership style played a significant role in helping him accomplish his goal of delivering the message of Islam to the world.  Researching these values in his public communication will uncover an important aspect of the methods through which the religion of Islam continues to motivate and inspire 1.2 billion Muslims around the world.   This research can also inform current secular and spiritual leaders. It will inform them about Islamic values inspired from the Muhammad teachings. While the theory of transformational leadership is widely researched and respected, the extraordinary values possessed and espoused by Prophet Muhammad can further inform business and personal dealings and provide a framework for ethical decision-making.  The extraordinary values of the Prophet Muhammad’s words are only realized after conducting a close reading of the Prophet’s public communication through a textual analysis. If modern leaders take Prophet Muhammad as an example to live with, the world will be a better place to live in.

To provide a close reading of the Prophet Muhammad's public communication and the values he displayed and spoke of, this research must be situated within previous research on the preaching of the Prophet and literature on leadership.  Chapter 2 will focus on the review of relevant literature to this research, including a history of Islamic religious thought, a discussion of leadership as characterized by recent researchers, and the importance of the Qur'an and Ahadith which chronicle the Prophet's preaching.  Chapter 3 presents the theoretical framework and methodology utilized in this research, that of textual analysis, and its justification in seeking the answers this research raises.  Chapter 4 discusses at length the interpretation of values espoused in Prophet Muhammad's public communication, isolating each one and demonstrating how it is seen in the text(s).  Finally, Chapter 5 presents the findings of this research and how the values are framed for wider dissemination to benefit all humankind.  Limitations on this study are raised and resolved and implications for further research are suggested.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

             Prophet Muhammad preached for twenty-three years and consequently the writings in the Qur’an and the Adith contain thousands of accounts of his interactions and public communication.  His public communication contained many references to values necessary to follow completely Allah’s will.  In his book, Muhammad in the Qur’an, Raza (1982) traced the verses in the Qur’an that described Prophet Muhammad’s character values: “And verily, you (O Muhammad) are on an exalted standard of character” (Qur’an 68:4). This was not only a claim, but Prophet Muhammad had already won from his fellow-citizens of Mecca the recognition of his magnificent morality inasmuch as he had won the title of Al-Amin, a title rarely conceded to anybody in the pre Islamic days (Khan, 1998).

Raza (1982) quoted from the Qur’an a verse that declared Prophet Muhammad to be a mercy to all the generations of men, a worldwide community value: "We sent you not (O Muhammad), but as a Mercy for all creatures" (Qur'an, 21:107).  This verse contains not only a reference to the merciful dealings of Prophet Muhammad with his opponents but also signifies that the Prophet’s arrival was not only a mercy to the Arabs, but it was also a mercy to the whole of humanity (p. 169).  Even today, the writings and words of the Prophet Muhammad are relevant for all of humankind and his words will remain pertinent and appropriate for the masses indefinitely.

The Prophet’s manner of preaching is indeed unique.  By leading through example, He was able to share the word and will of Allah through his actions and interactions.  In the Qur’an, the Prophet’s way with the people was described in the following verse: "By the grace of Allah, you (O Muhammad) are gentle towards the people; if you had been stern and harsh-hearted, they would have dispersed from round about you" (Qur'an 3:159).  And also: “Most certainly, you (people) have in the messenger of Allah an excellent pattern (of behavior)” (Qur’an 33:21).  This verse points to the most significant truth and a distinguishing character of the Prophet (Raza, 1982, p. 164).

 Many accounts of his prophethood describe his interactions with the people and how they held him in esteemed remembrance.  In his book, The Sealed Nectar, (1996). Al- Mubarakpuri quoted Ali ibin Abi Talib describing Prophet Muhammad thus:

He was the most generous of heart, truthful of tongue, softest in disposition, and noble in relationship. He who first set eyes upon him feared him, but he who associated with him loved him. Those who described him would say: “I have never seen before or after him anyone similar to him, peace be upon him. (Al-Mubarakpuri, 1996, p. 493)

Character Values

The Prophet Muhammad is continuously remembered for his dealings with those he shared the word and will of Allah.  His kindness to them and his interest in their well being are typically mentioned.  Michener (1955) wrote about Muhammad’s life and his treatment of the poor and needy, the widow and the orphan, the slave and the oppressed thus:

Muhammad, the inspired man who founded Islam, was born about A.D. 570 into an Arabian tribe that worshipped idols. Orphaned at birth, he was always particularly solicitous of the poor and needy, the widow and the orphan, the slave and the downtrodden. At twenty, he was already a successful businessman, and soon became director of camel caravans for a wealthy widow. When he reached twenty-five, his employer, recognizing his merit, proposed marriage. Even though she was fifteen years older, he married her, and as long as she lived, remained a devoted husband. (pp. 68-70)

According to Sharma (1935), "Muhammad was the soul of kindness, and his influence was felt and never forgotten by those around him" (p. 12).Mahatma Gandhi, well-known for his compassionate character to all people, described the character of Muhammad similarly to how others describe him:

I wanted to know the best of one who holds today's undisputed sway over the hearts of millions of humankind....I became more than convinced that it was not the sword that won a place for Islam in those days in the scheme of life. It was the rigid simplicity, the utter self-effacement of the Prophet, the scrupulous regard for his pledges, his intense devotion to his friends and followers, his intrepidity, his fearlessness, his absolute trust in God and in his own mission. These and not the sword carried everything before them and surmounted every obstacle. (Young India, nd)

Carlyle, one of the greatest thinkers of the past century, described Prophet Muhammad’s sincerity thus:

the great man's sincerity is of the kind he cannot speak of: nay, I suppose, he is conscious rather of insincerity;  for what man can walk accurately by the law of truth for one day?  No, the great man does not boast himself sincere, far from that; perhaps does not ask himself if he is so: I would say rather, his sincerity does not depend on himself: he cannot help being sincere! (1840, p. 59)

Carlyle’s glowing description of the Prophet, based on his research of the Prophet’s interactions with others and his desire for them to do according to God’s will, continued describing the Prophet Muhammad as:

a silent great soul, he was one of those who cannot but be in earnest, whom nature herself has appointed to be sincere. While others walk in formulas and hearsays, contented enough to dwell there, this man could  not screen him in formulas; he was alone with his own soul and the reality of things. . . Such sincerity, as we named it, has in very truth some thing of divine.  The word of such a man is a voice direct from nature's own heart.  Men do and must listen to that as to nothing else, - - - all else is wind in comparison. (1840, p. 71)

Carlyle described Prophet Muhammad’s fidelity in the following situation with his wife Ayesha thus: 

It is a boundless favour. He never forgot this good kadijah.  Long afterwards, Ayesha his young favourite wife, a woman who indeed distinguished herself among the moslems, by all manner of qualities, through her whole long life; this young brilliant Ayesha was, one day, questioning him. “Now am not I better than kadijah?  She was a widow; old, and had lost her looks: you love me better than you did her?” “No, by Allah!” answered Mahomet: “no, by Allah! She believed in me when none else would believe.  In the whole world I had but one friend, and she was that!... (1840, p.76)

            It would have been easier to repel the temptation of the devil than to give way to the ego of a young, loving, brilliant and beautiful wife like lady Ayesha.  Why not let her hear the soft soothing balm of flattery, it will not harm anyone.  Even the soul of Khadija, the mother of the Faithful, would look light-heartedly at the trick.  There is no shamming, no innocent "white lies" with Muhammad. Traits of this kind show us the genuine man (Deedat, 1990, p. 24).

Finally, Carlyle described Prophet Muhammad’s faithfulness and interest in the people as:

a man of truth and fidelity; true in what he did, in what he spake and thought.  They noted that he always meant something.  A man rather taciturn in speech; silent when there was nothing to be said; but pertinent, wise, sincere, when he did speak; always throwing light on the matter.  This is the only sort of speech worth speaking! (1840, p.69)

Community Values:

Again, it is important to remember that the public communication of the Prophet was meant for those who were able to hear it when he delivered the message, and for those who would, for centuries later, read it or hear it from others.  Shaw (1936) described what the modern world would be like under the leadership of Prophet Muhammad:

He must be called the Savior of Humanity. I believe that if a man like him were to assume the dictatorship of the modern world, he would succeed in solving its problems in a way that would bring it much needed peace and happiness. (p. 8)

The accomplishments of one man over the space of twenty-three years are indeed impressive.  He preached a religion, founded a state, built a nation, laid down a moral code, initiated numerous social and political reforms, established a powerful and dynamic society to practice and represent his teachings and completely revolutionized the worlds of human thought and behavior for all times to come.  Carlyle (1840) wrote, "how one man single-handedly, could weld warring tribes and wandering Bedouins into a most powerful and civilized nation in less than two decades" (pp. 287-288).

The Prophet is the face and voice of Islam, providing a clear and direct path to Allah and His will.  Researchers Gibbon and Ockley, explaining the Prophet’s importance to the spread and devotion of followers to Islam wrote:

I Believe in One God, and Mahomet, an Apostle of God' is the simple and invariable profession of Islam. The intellectual image of the Deity has never been degraded by any visible idol; the honor of the Prophet has never transgressed the measure of human virtues; and his living precepts have restrained the gratitude of his disciples within the bounds of reason and religion. (1870, p. 54)

Muhammad was nothing more or less than a human being. But he was a man with a noble mission, which was to unite humanity on the worship of one and only one God and to teach them the way to honest and upright living based on the commands of God.  He always described himself as "a servant and messenger of God," and so indeed every action of his proclaimed to be.

Speaking on the aspect of equality before God in Islam, Sarojini Naidu said:

It was the first religion that preached and practiced democracy; for, in the mosque, when the call for prayer is sounded and worshippers are gathered together, the democracy of Islam is embodied five times a day when the peasant and king kneel side by side and proclaim: “God Alone is Great”... I have been struck over and over again by this indivisible unity of Islam that makes man instinctively a brother. (1918, p. 169)  

Today after a lapse of fourteen centuries, the life and teachings of Muhammad have survived without the slightest loss, alteration or interruption. They offer the same undying hope for treating humankind's many ills, which they did when he was alive. This is not a claim of Muhammad's followers but an inescapable conclusion reached by a critical and unbiased history.

Researchers Gibbon and Ocklay (1870) continued with their praise of the Prophet: the honors of the Prophet have never transgressed the measure of human virtue, and his living precepts have restrained the gratitude of his disciples within the bounds of reason and religion. (p. 54)

Even though the Prophet could have exploited his position as a successful secular and spiritual leader, Muhammad never chose to do so.  Smith (1874) wrote about how Muhammad restrained his power:

He was Caesar and Pope in one; but he was Pope without Pope's pretensions, Caesar without the legions of Caesar: without a standing army, without a bodyguard, without a palace, without a fixed revenue; if ever any man had the right to say that he ruled by the right divine, it was Mohammed, for he had all the power without its instruments and without its supports. (p. 92)

The Prophet’s ability to lead and inspire has not waned through the years since his death.  In fact, his leadership ability continues to inspire.  Besant (1932) described how his admiration for the Prophet increased every time she read about Prophet Muhammad thus:

It is impossible for anyone who studies the life and character of the great Prophet of Arabia, who knows how he taught and how he lived, to feel anything but reverence for that mighty Prophet, one of the great messengers of the Supreme. And although in what I put to you I shall say many things which may be familiar to many, yet I myself feel whenever I re-read them, a new way of admiration, a new sense of reverence for that mighty Arabian teacher. (p. 4)

Although the Prophet was widely revered and admired, his legacy and teachings are still interpreted with distrust and skepticism, usually by those in the West.  Watt (1953) wrote about Prophet Muhammad’s leadership, integrity and being misunderstood in the West thus:

His readiness to undergo persecutions for his beliefs, the high moral character of the men who believed in him and looked up to him as leader, and the greatness of his ultimate achievement - all argue his fundamental integrity. To suppose Muhammad an impostor raises more problems than it solves. Moreover, none of the great figures of history is so poorly appreciated in the West as Muhammad. (p. 52)

But, for each skeptic of the Prophet’s words and writings, there are many more who believe in his words and his preaching and find the teachings important for their daily, practical needs.  Michener (1955) wrote about the practicality of  Muhammad’s teachings thus:

In all things Muhammad was profoundly practical. When his beloved son Ibrahim died, an eclipse occurred, and rumors of God's personal condolence quickly arose. Whereupon Muhammad is said to have announced, "An eclipse is a phenomenon of nature. It is foolish to attribute such things to the death or birth of a human being.” (pp. 68-70)

Prophet Muhammad’s Patterns of Communication as a World Leader

In his book, Muhammad Man and Prophet, Adil  Salahi (2002) wrote about opening up international horizons when Prophet Muhammad planned to spread the message of Islam beyond Arabia .  He decided to write to neighboring kings, including those of the superpowers, inviting them to Islam. In order to make the selection of ambassadors to the rulers, Prophet Muhammad selected some of the most competent of his companions as ambassadors to kings and heads of states. The ambassadors were conversant with the languages spoken as well as with the political conditions of the countries to which they were sent. The Prophet sent ambassadors to: Heraclius, Emperor of the Byzantines of the Eastern Roman Empire; Chosroes II, Emperor of Persian Empire; Negus, King of Abyssinia; Muqawqis, Ruler of Egypt; Harith Gassani, Governor of Syria; Al- Mundhir bin Sawa, Ruler of Bahrain (Salahi, 2002).  The dominion, prestige, splendor and might of the above kings and rulers who divided the world during the seventh century would indicate what a memorable step was taken by the Prophet.  The wording of the Prophet’s letters were all similar; the text of the letter sent to Heraclius was as follows:

In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful. This letter is from Muhammad the slave of Allah and his Apostle to Heraclius, the ruler of the Byzantines. Peace be upon him who follows the right path. Furthermore, I invite you to Islam and if you become a Muslim you will be safe, and Allah will double your reward, and if you reject this invitation of Islam you will be committing a sin by misguiding your subjects. And I recite to you Allah's statement: O People of the Scriptures! Come to a word common to you and us that we worship none but Allah and that we associate nothing in worship with Him, and that none of us shall take others as Lords beside Allah. Then if they turn away, say: Bear witness that we are Muslims (those who have surrendered to Allah). (Qur’an: 3: 64)

All the Prophet's letters were stamped with the words: “Muhammad Rasul-ullah" (Muhammad the Messenger of Allah). Three of the Prophet’s letters have been preserved. (Salahi, 2002)

            The reactions of the Monarchs differed. Heraclius, Negus and Muqauqis received the letter from the Prophet with such respect that each gave a courteous reply.  Negus and Muqauqis showed the highest regard to the envoys.  Chosroes II was indignant and tore the letter into pieces, saying, “My slave dares to write me thus.”  When his reply was conveyed to the Prophet, he said, “even so shall God shatter his kingdom to pieces” (Salahi, 2002) Choroes II wrote to Badhan, who was his governor in Yemen , to get the Prophet sent to him in Ctesiphon .  Badhan sent Babwayh to tell the Prophet what Choroes II had written to him and that he had come to take him to the king.  But when Babwayh came to Madina, the Prophet told him that God has given Sherveh power and he has killed Choroes II.  The prophecy of the Prophet was the reason that the ruler of Yemen became a Muslim, when the news came to him afterwards identical to what the Prophet stated. (Salahi, 2002)

Global morals, values and principals of the Prophet Muhammad

            In his book, Islam Teaching and Principles, Higab (1996) stated that the message of Islam is general to all humankind. Scholars who interpret the meaning of the Qur’an state that any verse beginning with the phrase “you people” actually addresses humankind indefinitely.  The Prophet Muhammad himself remarked:  “I am a messenger, sent by God to you in particular, to humankind in general. I am warning you…” (p. 224) The message of Islam has a universal stamp, because its purpose is to serve all of mankind without color or racial discrimination.  In Islam, all are treated equally: there was one human race at the creation of the universe, one form of human nature, and so it is now. God desires different nations to get to know one another for a purpose of getting together in friendship, which leads to peace instead of strife (pp. 223-224).

In situations when there were no instructions from Allah to Prophet Muhammad, the Prophet used to counsel and ask his followers about their opinions in the matter.  For example, during one of the battles, a follower advised the Prophet to change the location of the Muslim troops. When the Prophet realized that the suggestion of the follower would benefit their fighting the enemy, he asked the troops to change their location as the follower’s suggested (Salahi, 2002).  While the Prophet could have made decisions without input, and could have used the power and prestige he enjoyed both secularly and spiritually to influence others for his own gains, the Prophet, instead, was interested in the advice and suggestions from those around him. Muhammad then was a great leader and provided comfort and strength to those whom he counseled and led.  He did as suggested by Masserman (1974), an American psychoanalyst, who delineates the different functions that the leaders must fulfill:

Leaders must fulfill three functions: 1) Provide for the well being of the led, 2) Provide a social organization in which people feel relatively secure, and 3) Provide them with a set of beliefs. People like Pasteur and Salk are leaders in the first sense. People like Gandhi and Confucius, on one hand, and Alexander and Caesar on the other, are leaders in the second and perhaps the third sense Jesus and Buddha belong in the third category alone. Perhaps the greatest leader of all time was Muhammad, who combined all three functions. To a lesser degree, Moses did the same. (p.35) 

The Prophet Muhammad had all the qualities a leader is supposed to have as described by Masserman (1974). He was a leader not only in one aspect of life but he led his community to success in every field.  Hart (1978), in his published book on ratings of those who contributed towards the benefit and uplifting of humankind, placed Muhammad as the number one person who influenced humankind.  He realized his choice may be controversial and responded:

My choice of Muhammad to lead the list of the world's most influential persons may surprise some readers and may be questioned by others, but he was the only man in history who was supremely successful on both the religious and secular levels. (p. 33)

            Without question, the Prophet Muhammad had many opportunities to lead and guide his spiritual and secular followers.  Instead of wielding his power and prestige for his own gain, he instead spent his time reinforcing his message by treating those around him well, and upholding the values he lauded in his public communication. Scholars of leadership have recognized the Prophet’s prowess at inspiring and leading others and have compared his abilities to religious leaders of similar stature, suggesting his success on many levels was superior to others.(Hart, 1978)  The Prophet’s unique ability to lead and direct, while exhibiting transformational and extraordinary values, makes him a leader to research and to emulate.

CHAPTER III

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY

This study utilizes leadership and communication theory as a means of generating data from primary materials.  Burns’(1978) theory of transformational leadership has been the basis of more than 400 doctoral dissertations.  His theory had a powerful component; what Georgia Sorenson (2000) calls a "values-added" dimension.  Until Burns’ book, the goal of good leadership was seen as "effectiveness." Burns transformed our view of leadership by insisting that great leadership had moral dimensions. "Moral" to Burns did not mean the everyday virtues or daily ethical dimensions, but adherence to the great public values such as liberty, justice, and equality. Moral leadership was the purview of great leadership. He thus made a distinction between two different but compatible leadership behaviors–transforming and transactional. He defined transactional leadership as "everyday brokerage" and "the process whereby one person takes the initiative in making contact with others for the purpose of an exchange of valued things"  (1978, p. 20).

Moral Value Leadership emerges from, and always returns to, the fundamental wants and needs, aspirations, and values of the followers (Burns, 1978).  For Burns(1978), his project is to "deal with leadership as distinct from mere power-holding and as the opposite of beast power" (p. 20).   He maintains

Moral Value Leadership—requires  a relationship not only of power but of mutual needs, aspirations, and higher values between leaders and followers; requires that in responding to leaders, followers have adequate knowledge of alternative leaders and programs and the capacity to choose among those alternatives; requires leaders to take responsibility for their commitments–if they promise certain kinds of economic, social, and political change, they assume leadership in the bringing about of that change. (Burns, 1978, p. 30) 

Burns sets up a duality between amoral and moral leaders, and only the moral leaders with higher purpose can be transactional or transformational.  Thus, Burns' theory of morality drives the duality.  The hierarchy is as follows: amoral leaders are coercive with a strong will to power, transactional leaders have the moral means to lead, and transformational leaders add to transaction what is lacking, the moral ends of leadership. The moral value leader is both transactional and transformational but in different ways (but never amoral).  Transactional Moral Value Leaders lead with modal values (the means over ends) that include: honesty, responsibility, fairness, and honoring one's commitments.  Conversely, Transformational Moral Value Leaders lead with transcendent values (the ends over means) that include liberty, justice, equality and collective well-being. 

The transactional and transformational choices of leaders in Burns' typology do not include naked power wielders. Also, the transformational ones have modal (means over ends) motives, while the transformational leaders make means consistent with attaining higher ends.  The amoral leaders also lack the intent to bring followers to a higher level of moral reasoning. Many readers miss the fact that leadership as defined by Burns (1978), be it transactional or transformational, was about moral values; amoral power-wielders did not qualify as leaders.  In this sense, the trinity and hierarchy of amoral, transactional-means, and transformational-ends are based on Burns' theory of power and psychological motives.  For Burns (1978), "all leaders are actual or potential power holders, but not all power holders are leaders.”(p.18) And psychologically the power wielders are distinguished from leaders, because the former "treat people as things" and real "leaders do not eliminate followers' motives" (Burns, 1978, p. 18).  At the top of the leadership pyramid is the transformational leader who "converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents" (Burns, 1978, p. 4). 

For transactional leaders, the negotiation of resources and transactions was monitored by modal values, "that is, values of means including—honesty , responsibility, fairness, the honoring of commitments–without  which transactional leadership could not work" (Burns, 1978, p. 426).  For Burns, both transactional and transformational leadership have moral implications. Burns sought a moral use of power, and looked at the transactional and transformational resources of power holders responding in power relationships within some collective.  Leaders and followers were in exchange relationships, based on power and moral values.  Burns’ Transformational Leader is someone who "recognizes and exploits an existing need or demand of a potential follower... (and) looks for potential motives in followers, seeks to satisfy higher needs, and engages the full person of the follower" (Boje, 2000, p. 4).

Bass, Avolio, & Goodheim (1987) cite Burns' definition of Transformational Leader. The leader who recognizes the transactional needs in potential followers tend to go further. Transformational political leaders may also use their authority and power to radically reshape through coercive means the social and physical environment, thus destroying the old way of life and making way for a new one" (Bass, et al., p. 18). He further argues that transformational leadership is universally applicable.  He proposes that, regardless of culture, transformational leaders inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the group or organization, followers become motivated to expend greater effort than would usually be expected.

At one point, Bass et al. (1987) contends that "most leaders do both (transformation and transaction) in different amounts" (p. 22) or "transformational and transactional leadership are likely to be displayed by the same individual in different amounts and intensities" (p. 26).  The transactional leader could contribute confidence and desire by clarifying what performance was required and how needs would be satisfied as a result. The transformational leader induces additional effort by further sharply increasing subordinate confidence and by elevating the value of outcomes for the subordinate" (p. 22).  Bass (1985) concludes that "the leadership of the great men (and great women) of history has usually been transformational, not transactional (p. 26). 

The research of Bennis and Nanus (1985) adds to the list of leader traits.  They also include logical thinking, persistence, empowerment, and self-control as necessary traits.  But, most of all, they confirmed transformational (leaders) as being different from transactional (managers).  The transformation is to make followers into self-empowered leaders, and into change agents. The leader's job is to articulate vision and values clearly so the new self-empowered leaders know where to go.  The necessary traits of a transformational leader are described as the 4 I's: idealized influence (leader becomes a role model); inspirational motivation (team spirit, motivate, and provide meaning and challenge); intellectual stimulation (creativity and innovation); individual consideration (mentoring) (p.25).  Transformational leaders know that they need to give their people very good reasons to come with them on their journey to their desired future state. They know that their people need to be motivated to do so and that their motivation is driven by their beliefs. (Allan, 2003).

Barge (1994) summarizes Burns’ Transformational Leadership theory and clarifies that leaders rely on their rhetorical skills to create a compelling vision of the future, which prompts shifts in follower beliefs, needs, and values. Transformational leaders do not depend on their ability to manipulate formal rewards and punishments; rather, they set an example for followers and use rhetorical skills to establish a common vision (p. 52).  

The role of communication in transformational leadership theory is very important. Barge (1994) argues that effective transformational leaders must possess rhetorical and persuasive skills to compose clear, visionary and inspiring messages.  Transformational leaders need to be creative in their communication messages for particular individuals, at a particular place and at given times.  One of the key aspects of transformational leadership theory is its ability to create new definitions for situations and to define various contexts (p. 58).  The transformational theory emphasizes the power of communication in creating new ways of thinking and organizing collective behavior (p. 60).

Hackman and Johnson (1996) argue that whether or not a leader exhibits transformational behavior may be directly related to the leader’s communication skills. Hackman and Johnson state that communication professor Ted Zorn discovered a relationship between the complexity of a leader’s system and the tendency to exhibit transformational leadership behavior.  Zorn (1991) found those leaders with the most developed cognitive and communication abilities were the most likely to be perceived as transformational by their followers.  They also found in their research that transformational leaders exhibit many specific qualities, and are typically creative, interactive, visionary, empowering and passionate. They are innovative and foresighted who are masterful communicators, able to articulate and define ideas and concepts that escape others. Hackman and Johnson (1996) remind “extraordinary leadership is a product of extraordinary communication” and that “communicating a vision to followers may well be the most important act of the transformational leader” (pp. 81- 82).  Nanus (1985) suggests an effective vision has four characteristics, that it “attracts commitment and energizes people, creates meaning for followers, establishes a standard of excellence, bridges the present and the future” (p. 27)

Transformational leaders empower others.  The exchange of ideas between leaders and followers does not pose a threat to the transformational leader (Hackman & Johnson, 1996, p. 88).  Transformational leaders are passionately committed to their goal. They motivate and encourage others. They have a great deal of affection for the people around them (Hackman & Johnson, 1996, p. 92)

Stereotypes Theory

(Infante at all, 1997) define Stereotypes that they are mental categories shared by group members about other groups based on learned opinions rather than information about a specific individual.

Ford and Stangor (1992) tested the hypotheses that when forming stereotypes of social groups, the attribute dimensions which are most differentiated will most likely become stereotypical. They suggest that stereotypes may be best viewed as the characteristics that are most strongly associated with a group in memory. Therefore, stereotypes of a group are the attributes that are most likely to come to mind when thinking about a particular group. (http://www.student.richmond.edu/~sjohnso2/stereotypes.html)

In the past, when so many attacks were launched against Islam under an open and unabashed crusader flag, various popes used to encourage some fanatics to write booklets containing lies against Islam, distorting the message and reviling the religion. Many of the strongest stereotypes are from this era.

After the church withdrew from this activity, the number of these attacks was obviously reduced. Yet they did not stop altogether. They took another form under a different banner, the pretext of freedom of expression. Only the approach has changed. It is a fact that Islam receives the most hostile media coverage.Back up the claim. It is not difficult to see that Muslim's are being stereotyped as a threat to the "New World Order". (About Al-Islam and Muslims v1.9)

METHODOLOGY

This study employed textual analysis as a method to analyze the values that Prophet Muhammad manifested in his public communication. According to Denzin and Lincoln (2002), textual analysis is used to “describe and interpret the characteristics of a recorded or visual message” (p. 225).  The purpose of textual analysis is to ascertain the meaning intended by the producer of a text (Hirsch, 1967).  Textual analysis can be used to answer the two major questions posed in communication research: “What is the nature of communication?” and “How is communication related to other variables?  This research seeks to understand the nature of the public communication of the Prophet Muhammad and address how the extraordinary values he espouses in his public communication are related to his life and Prophet hood.

Textual Boundaries:

Where does a text begin and end? If a text has a determinate state, then it would necessarily follow that we should be able to localize the text. But where? The language of the text suggests that we end the text where language ends (Grigely, 1995, p. 130).  However, the language that the Prophet Muhammad used set unlimited boundaries to the text as his messages continue today in written form. The continuous message of the Prophet is important as his message was not intended solely for his local people.  His messages and parlaying of values was meant for all people everywhere and for all generations to come.  His words evoke emotion and devotion to the teachings of Islam even today.  Therefore, the text and language do not end, but instead continue to inspire and invigorate.

Textual Event

Grigely (1995) argues that text might be prepared for a specific event and he raises the issue of the notion of iterability. Repeatability is a universal quality in textual studies, where efforts are made to produce or reproduce a particular text (p. 93).  The sayings of Prophet Muhammad have been known, repeated, produced, reproduced, printed, reprinted and will stay forever in the world since they were delivered by the Prophet fourteen centuries ago.

The researcher chose textual analysis instead of content analysis because

content analysis cannot sufficiently tease out or lay bare all the subtleties and nuances of verbal and visual messages.  It is only by a close and critical examination of the verbal text that we can deconstruct and reveal the messages that are subtle and covert. (Roy, 1996, p. 318)

He also cites Hall that:

literary critical, linguistic and stylistic methods of analysis are by contrast, more useful in penetrating the latent meanings of a text, and they preserve something of the complexity of language and connotation which has to be sacrificed in content analysis in order to achieve high validation. (Roy, 1996, p .318)

The connotative meaning of a text is the main aim of textual analysis. The nuances in the speeches of Prophet Muhammad can only be analyzed and discussed in greater detail using the method of textual analysis. Hall (as cited in Roy , 2001) maintains “textual analysis is performed to examine the discourse…so as to get behind the broad distribution of manifest content to the latent implicit patterns and emphasis” (p. 90).

The analytical discourse that a researcher using textual analysis does on a given data is quite different from what a researcher using content analysis can do with the same data. The latter is mostly concerned chiefly with unit of analysis and the coding categories. He cannot deviate from them. He is limited to the systemic codes rather than going beyond. But a researcher employing textual analysis goes beyond to examine the subtleties, nitty-gritty of both the visual as well as the non-visuals in the text.

This researcher identified themes (values) through a close reading of the speeches of Prophet Muhammad, using Pardun and Krugman (as cited in Potter, 1996) “ line-by-line examination” (p.124). The values in the speeches of Prophet Muhammad were then categorized on the basis of their intent and specific message: character values and community values.  These two broad categories for values also contain several other subsets of values (categories).

Prophet Muhammad said about himself that “I am the most eloquent among the Arab” (Faizi, 1997, p.2). His speeches were short and concise, offering wisdom and suggestions of how praise Allah.  Some of these sayings would interpret each other. The sayings were selected out of the populations of the Ahadith, a compendium of sayings by Muhammad. The researcher used the encyclopedia of Ahadith as a primary source for Muhammad’s public communication as it contains thousands of instances of Muhammad’s public communication and is thought to be, among the Islamic community, the most comprehensive and accurate depiction of his sayings.  Many of the thousands of speeches were reviewed.  During the close review and reading of the speeches, themes arose from the texts, those of the overarching values of character, and community.  More than 70 themes were identified, but only the two categories of extraordinary values and the values which support those categories are examined in this textual analysis.  To better explain the Ahadith and its offerings, authors are listed below with brief information on their place within the Ahadith.  Examples of the speeches found in the Ahadith collections follow.   First, Sahih Bukhari’s (2000) collection is considered by researchers as second to none.  Bukhari spent sixteen years compiling it, and ended up with 2,602 Ahadith.  Secondly, Sahih Muslim (2000)  reviewed over 300,000 Ahadith, and extracted approximately 4,000 for inclusion into his collection.  Thirdly, the collection of Sunan Abu-Dawud (2000) includes 4,800 Ahadith, chosen from the 50,000 he reviewed.  Also, Malik's Muwatta (1985) contains 1,831 Ahadith.  Lastly, the Jami' is Tirmidhi's (2000) magnum opus. It contains 3,956 Ahadith. The total Ahadith of the Prophet are 17,189, which were closely reviewed. The samples 113 of the Ahadith were selected depending on the speeches of Prophet Muhammad related to the values addressed. Also, 30 verses from the Qur’an were used when they were related to the values addressed.

The importance of the textual analysis as a methodology is that is allows a researcher the opportunity to review public communication and to provide the highlighted materials to the audience.  By reviewing so many of the Prophet’s sayings, literally thousands, this research presents a robust reading of the public communication and its impact upon observing Muslims.     

CHAPTER IV

INTERPRETATION OF VALUES

Burns identified transcendent values of liberty, justice, equality, and collective well being that transformational leaders must possess. This research suggests that Prophet Muhammad possessed each of the values, namely, liberty, justice, equality, and collective well being. The textual analysis of Prophet Muhammad’s speeches also revealed that he possessed more than the four values of a transformational leader as identified by Burns (1978). The researcher identified eight character values and four community values in Prophet Muhammad’s speeches, which the researcher has classified as extraordinary values.  These extraordinary values that have been identified by the researcher will be explained after the discussion of Burns’ transformational leader values. In this section, Prophet Muhammad’s speeches that exemplify these transformational values will be highlighted. Specifically, a textual analysis of Prophet Muhammad’s public speeches will reveal the extraordinary skills that he possessed and practiced.

Liberty

            People who are slaves are unable to enjoy freedom or taste of liberty.  Upon a close examination of his speeches, it is clear that Prophet Muhammad abhorred slavery and proposed measures to abolish it and would impart others to treat all humankind with respect, hoping they would, too, enjoy liberty. His contemporary world was a world of masters and slaves and there were more slaves than masters.  The entire economic structure of society was based on slavery.  Prophet Muhammad exhorted people to treat their slaves with kindness.  Any ill-treatment of the slave entitled him to seek compensation. Prophet Muhammad is reported in Bukhari to have witnessed a master beating his slave in an inhuman manner. The master was severely warned and on having expressed regret he was asked to free the slave to make up for his sin. Once Abu Mas’ud Ansari was beating his slave when he heard a voice behind him saying:

Abu Mas’ud! Allah has more power and control over you than you have over this slave.” Abu Mas’ud turned and saw that it was Allah’s Messenger. He said: “0 Allah’s Messenger! I free this slave for the Pleasure of Allah.” The Prophet replied: “If you had not done so, the fire of Hell would have touched you. (Tirmidhi, 1948)

In other cases a slave might be entitled to earn his freedom by paying off the master from the savings of his wages. Masters who still wanted to keep their slaves were allowed to retain them on the condition that they feed and clothe them as they feed and clothe themselves.

For a number of minor and major wrongs, Prophet Muhammad substituted the emancipation of slaves for fines or other forms of punishment. When the Qur'an enumerates important virtues, the emancipation of slaves is often included in the list. Before Islam, the common custom was to murder the captured enemy or to keep him as a slave.  Islam gave preference to the prisoners of war being released on the payment of ransom or as a matter of charity.  The ransom demanded was not always in the shape of money.  The Prophet said whoever could teach the children to read and write would be set free. Among the uses of voluntary charity, the emancipation of slaves was recommended as an act of great merit. Zakat, the funds collected by the state from those who had surplus wealth, were to be used to ease all kinds of human distress; setting free the slaves by paying off their masters was one of the purposes for which Zakat funds were to be expanded. Women in particular were equally suffering from this slave practices and so the Prophet tried to address the issue.

 Prophet Muhammad saw that women had been enslaved by man and were considered to be mere pieces of property having almost the status of slaves. It was considered a shame to have a daughter, therefore many of them were buried alive after birth, and some were similarly destroyed even after reaching puberty. Prophet Muhammad raised his passionate voice against this cruelty.  He said, "The good among you are those who are good to women. Whoever makes sacrifices in bringing up two daughters with love and mercy shall go to paradise.” Paradise therefore, stands like the symbol of reward to these who obey the Prophet Muhammad.  Thus, he believes that " Paradise is under the feet of your mothers." (Bukhari, 2000, p.506) Bahz b. Hakim, on his father’s authority, said that his grandfather told him that he had asked Allah’s Messenger to whom he should show kindness and that the Prophet had replied: “Your mother.” He asked who came next and he replied: “Your mother.” He asked who came next and he replied for the third time: “Your mother.” He again asked who came next and he replied: “Your father, then your relatives in order of relationship” (Abu-Dawud, 5120). Prophet Muhammad helped women in all possible ways to get equal status with men.  The Qur'an says, "They have rights similar to those against them"(Qur’an 2:228).  The Qur'an preaches a common morality for both the sexes in every respect; in most of the moral orders they are mentioned together. Women shared with men equality before the law. They were granted civil rights which some of the civilized countries refuse to grant them even today. Marriage was made a civil contract between man and woman in which any lawful conditions could be inserted. She was granted the right of inheritance and the right to own property in her own name. Owning property was an unconditional economic privilege not to be left in the hands of certain sexes or gender.

Economic liberation of man was another issue that Prophet Muhammad emphasized. Prophet Muhammad transformed all honest work into worship. He said that the man, who is seeking livelihood for his family, is also worshipping God, stating "The wage-earner is a friend of God" (Bukhari, 2000, p. 486).  He was the first great religious teacher who announced in clear terms that for the common man poverty was a great evil. He said, “poverty brings a man to the brink of loss of faith in God” (Muslim, 2000, p.1064).  In the revelation, God mentions as one of the blessings conferred on the Prophet that he was originally poor and God had granted him freedom from want.  It is a famous saying of the Prophet that poverty blackens a man's face in both the worlds; every effort, therefore, must be made to ward it off.  But this was only one aspect of his economic outlook.  He was equally, if not more, afraid of superfluous wealth which makes the possessor luxurious and unjust and warned, "I am not so much afraid of your poverty as of your wealth" (Tirmidhi, 2462). A man is as much enslaved by wrongfully accumulated wealth as he is degraded by poverty. The middle path of economic sufficiency and security is the path of all social justice.

 The Prophet prohibited usury, another form of economic exploitation in Islam. Since there is such economic monopoly and exploitation in a capitalistic system, the rich will become richer and the poor will become poorer. At his last sermon, Prophet Muhammad stated: "All dues of interest shall stand cancelled and you will have only your capital back. Allah has forbidden interest, and I cancel the dues of interest payable to my uncle Abbas ibn Abdul Muttalib" (Bukhari, 4403).  In the Qur’an, the same point is confirmed: "You who believe fear God and write off anything that remains outstanding from lending at interest if ye are indeed believers" (Qur’an, 2:278). By emphasizing on these elements, Prophet Muhammad wanted to create an equitable community void of suppression and oppression. His main aim was to institute Justice as an important notion of bringing peace to all humankind.

Justice

            By reading closely the Prophet Muhammad’s speeches, it is apparent that he believed in justice for all humanity.  He embodied the commandment of the Qur’an:

 0 you who believe! Stand out firmly for Allah, as witnesses to fair dealing, and let not the hatred and enmity of others make you swerve to wrong and depart from justice. Be just: that is next to piety: and fear Allah. (Qur’an, 5:9).

            Textual analysis of his speeches also revealed he did not even discriminate between a near relative and a stranger in these matters; if the stranger was in the right, he decreed against his relative and in favor of the stranger.

Once a noble woman of the Quraish committed theft.  Her relatives tried to intercede on her behalf. The Prophet called the people and addressed them in these words: “What destroyed your predecessors was just that when a person of rank among them committed a theft (or any crime), they left him alone, but when a weak one of their number committed a theft (or any crime), they inflicted the prescribed punishment on him. I swear by Allah that if Fatimah, daughter of Muhammad, should steal. I would have her hand cut off.” (Bukhari, 6787)

            This strict fairness of the Prophet in matters of disputes and crimes was in line with the commandment of the Qur’an not to distinguish between a relative and a stranger in matters of justice: “Whenever you speak, speak justly and fairly, even if a near relative is concerned; and fulfill the Covenant of Allah. Thus, does Allah Command you that you may remember and heed” (Qur’an 6: 152).  And again, in Surah Nisa  we read:

O you who believe! Stand out firmly for justice as witnesses to Allah, even as against yourselves, or your parents, or you’re near relatives, and whether it be against rich or poor. For Allah can best protect both. Follow not the lusts (of your hearts), lest you swerve (from doing justice), and if you distort (justice) or decline to do justice, surely Allah is well-acquainted with all that you do. Qur’an,  4:135)

            The Prophet firmly established the rule of justice among his people by his own example and practice. When he was on his deathbed, just a few moments